BBI 3213 SPEECH COMMUNICATION

BBI 3213
SPEECH COMMUNICATION

“For speech communication to be effective in a multicultural context, it must be free.” Discuss this statement with reference to specific macro/micro contexts of spoken language use in the community and taking into account speech needs in English on the national and/or international scene. Write a library research paper that answers the above question. Give suitable examples where appropriate.

CONTENT PAGES
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Brief background statements about speech in the community 02
1.2 Issue/ problem / questions 05
1.3 Purpose and scope of paper 05
1.4 Definition of key terms 06

2.0 Brief review of related topics
2.1 The contexts of human communication 08
2.2 Macro context of spoken language use in the community 11
2.3 Micro context of spoken language use in the community 12

3.0 Discussion related to the problem / questions
3.1 Why speech community is needed? 13
3.2 Problems related in speech community 14
3.3 Ways of improving in speech community 15

4.0 Conclusion
4.1 Summary and conclusions 16
4.2 Implications, suggestions and resolutions 17

References / Bibliographies 18

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Brief background statements about speech in the community
“For speech communication to be effective in a multicultural context, it must be free.” Personally, I agreed with this statement where it shows a deeply meaning to the sentences. Indeed, it is true for us to have this community in our own country. At the same time, context is related to discourse because the environment of interaction change and it depends to the situation of the event.
Based on the statement, multicultural is relating to a social or educational theory that encourages interest in many cultures within a society rather than in only a mainstream culture. It is a culture that involves a lot of races and it involves with communication. It is also participating in the cultures of different countries, ethnic groups or religions. On the other hand, context in linguistics involves communication. It has two different ways which is verbal context and social context in human communication. Verbal context is a matter where refers to surrounding talk which is spoken, written and paralanguage such as gestures and facial expression. These three verbal actions give a significant of context in communication. As for social context, it is a social variable such as class, gender or race.
Multicultural context and speech community are inter-related to one another. To have a good multicultural context, the community needs to be free in the speech communication and willing to receive others cultures at a time. This community needs to adapt themselves in the change for good purposes and a successful communication. For example, we are living in Malaysia. We are proud to be Malaysians as it is multi-ethnic country. In our lovely country, we live with a lot of races such as Malays, Chinese, Indians and Bumiputeras. But the best thing about it is, we live as one. As for the communication purposes, we use our main language which is Malay Language (Bahasa Melayu) or English Language. These languages are compulsory know by Malaysians. It is a must for us to communicate this language in order to convey messages meaningfully. We live in various kinds of races but we still can communicate well with one another. Speech community plays an important role of mighty and strong unity country.
Malaysians usually respect others. We live in a peaceful country and respect others’ cultures. For example, during the celebration of Hari Raya Puasa, a Muslim most important celebration, while they are having their open house, most of the guests who are coming are normally Muslims and non Muslims. You can see the Chinese, Indians and others races are coming to visit their friends during Hari Raya Puasa. It is usual as Malaysian. A good example is the “Rumah Terbuka Sambutan Hari Raya” in the state level. We can see a lot of races coming to join this celebration. There are Muslim and non Muslims all over the track. This celebration occurs in the stadium that can invite a lot of Malaysians to come. Everyone can try the chicken curry, rendang, kuruma daging and most of the Muslims’ delicious dishes. The ministers will come and join this open house of the state level.
Another good example is during the celebration of Chinese New Year, I usually invite my Muslim friends as I work as a teacher in SK Agama (MIS) Miri. Most of my colleagues are Muslims. Every year, I invite them to come to my house. Indeed, I should know and respect them. I will normally ask my Muslim neighbours to cook food and dishes like chicken curry, mix vegetables, kuruma daging and fried rice. They can eat and feel easy to come. They know that every year I will do that. They are happy to have an understanding colleague like me. My mother will normally give their children red pockets. They learn our cultures too as they will ask a lot of interesting question regarding the celebration of the Chinese New Year such as why Chinese needs red colour in this celebration, what is the reason to play firecrackers and fireworks, why they are lion dances during the celebration and why they are reunion dinner during the eve of the celebration. I am glad to share with them.
In all of these celebration stated, speech communication plays an important roles in the multicultural context and it must be free to accept others. Even though we are free to do so, we need to remind ourselves to have this integrity and showing a deeply understanding and respect to others and their cultures. We are willing to learn and getting along with others’ cultures. In this statement, Malaysia is one of the best examples for other countries. We live with kinds of races and yet the main language that we usually use are Malay Language (Bahasa Melayu) and English Language.
As Malaysian, we should be grateful to accept kinds of races in our country and understand one another. We should be grateful to have education that teaches us to speak in Malay Language and English Language as the main language of the country. At the same time, pupils that learning this new subject “Pendidikan Sivik dan Kewarganegaraan” and Moral Education in the school are good purpose to unite the people of Malaysia. We learn to know others’ cultures. At the same time, we learn to be free to have an effective speech communication in the multicultural context.
To have an effective communication in the speech community, one should respect and willing to change at a time to show an understanding way of expressing love and peaceful country. I would like to say that the speech community exist everyday in our lives as long as we are communicating in a group with same or different races at the same time using one specific language. It happens everywhere and anytime in our daily lives and activities such in the market, in the office, at home and in a community.

1.2 Issues / problems / questions
In this research paper, I will discuss about:
a) Why speech community is needed in multicultural context?
b) The problems related in speech community
c) Ways of improving the speech community in multicultural context

1.3 Purpose and scope of paper
In this research paper, the purpose and scope are:
a) We will know and have a deeply understanding what and how speech community is important in the multicultural context
b) We will know the problems stated in the speech community
c) We will know the ways of improving the speech community in multicultural context in order to have a peaceful and unity country like Malaysia
d) We will know about the contexts of human communication
e) We will know the macro and micro context of spoken language use in the community

1.4 Definition of key terms
Communication is a process where individual convey the messages or views by speaking to the listener. It is an act of passing the news, information, view and opinion to others. It is a process and product activity which leads to the goals of communication.
Everyone belongs to a speech community. It is a group of people who speak the same and different language. We usually speak more that one language in our own country where as in our own town or in our own working place. It depends to the situation of the speech occurs in our daily lives. We give speech every day. It is compulsory for us to speak whether we are alone or so-called intrapersonal where we think alone in order to get a message. Besides, we speak with others too or so-called interpersonal. Men have to communicate among each other to get and understand the messages receive as well as replying or giving feedback.
What is speech community? If we refer to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (sixth edition), speech / spi:tʃ / means a formal talk that a person gives to an audience / the language used when speaking while community / kəmju:nəti / means all the people who lived in a particular area or group when talked about as a group. Here, it tells us that speech community involves between a speaker and the audience. In order to have a good conversation, speech community takes part to success the conversation. It plays an important role of being successful in this speech communication which happens every day in our daily activities. In a nutshell, we speak in the community of area or group.
Lyons (1970) defines a speech community as comprising of all the people who use a given language and dialect. It conceives of people who speak the same language or dialects, such as English as representing one speech community. As for Gumperz (1971), he introduced the term linguistic community as a social group which may be either monolingual or multilingual, held together by frequency of social interaction patterns and set off from the surrounding areas by weaknesses in the lines of communication. Now, speech community can be converse in the same groups, ethnics, races, dialects and people around us which converse with us. We cannot hide from speech community. It can be intrapersonal or interpersonal. We can even use our mind to think. It is a manner of conversation in our lives in order to have a good feedback.
For what we know when the word speech combines with the word community, it gives us a different meaning. According to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia in the Internet, speech community defines a concept of sociolinguistics that describes a discrete group of people who use the language in a unique accepted way among themselves. These members are specialized in jargon, distinct social groups like school students and their hip hop fans or even in families and friends. In addition they develop the slang to serve the group’s special purposes and priorities.
Suzzanne Romaine (1994) in her book Language in society: An introduction to sociolinguistics defines speech community as a group of people who do not share the same language. They share a set of norms and rules for the use of language. It is not necessarily to cover a large area with a language community. Alessandro Duranti (1997) in his book Linguistics anthropology defines speech community as the product of the communicative activities engaged in by a given group of people.
Speech community is like speech communication. The difference is just the community and communication involves. But when we think it over again, speech communication is the one who play an important role in the speech community. A good example, during the celebration of Hari Raya Puasa, the friends from other races will speak in Bahasa Melayu automatically in their group of speech community. Here, it shows a high respect to other cultures. By the above statements that are stated, speech community is a group of people sharing characteristics patterns of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. In addition, it is a group of people speaking a particular language or dialect. It is the same group that often speaks in the same way. They may use the same code and share the same norms and values. They may be said to belong to the same speech community. Where there are two or three people in the community, it shows the people of practising the conversation.
Speech community occurs everywhere in the daily communication. It gives a good practice to respect and learn others’ culture at the time. Speech community is a group of people who share the same dialect or language. It can be change once in a while due to the situation of the context in communication.

2.0 Brief review of related topics
2.1 The Contexts of Human Communication
Human communication occurs every day in our daily lives. It is interpersonal communication where individual convey messages, views, opinions and information to others. Without a good and proper communication, both speakers and listeners are impossible getting good messages from one another. Before a communication is started, individual needs to plan wisely what to talk about. Individual needs to think critically about an effective conversation with others and avoid conflict through communication. By this proper human communication, we can apply effective speech in the community without any conflict. There are many ways in the contexts of human communication in speech community.
Firstly, interpersonal relationships can maximize pleasures and minimize pain like misunderstanding. Both speakers and listeners need to build a good relationship while communication. They can learn about others’ cultures and enhance self-esteem in the communication. Relationships of all kinds and in all their aspects are heavily influenced by culture. For example, a relationship of family members, parents usually speaks formally in the office. While at home, they have to change their ways of conversation to speak like parents who care their family with their little children. Communication is change depending to the situation in the conversation. Other example like a boyfriend is talking to his girlfriend. He will speak in beautiful phrases to show admiration and love to his girlfriend. He might use phrase like, “You are the apple of my eyes...” or “I love you till the end of my life...”
Secondly, small group in the speech community such as meeting in the office, study group, group discussion like sharing and chitchatting or prayer group, this community is also one of the contexts of human communication. A small group that consist approximately 5 to 12 people and it is relative ease for both senders and receivers to share a common purpose and follow similar organizing rules. To have effective group, members must share a common purpose and similarity in their reasons for interacting. For example, an organization is having a meeting in the office that consist 11 people which are the Chief Executive Officer with his 10 branch managers. This speech community is using the official and formally where of conversation that leads to goals for what they meet. Another example is a small study group in the colleges or universities. Students convey about their studies on speech communication and share their communication with one another in the discussion.
Moreover, the public speaking is also one of the ways of human communication. Public speaking is a form of communication in which a speaker speaks a relatively large audience with relatively continuous discourse in real face to face situation. To have a good and effective public speaking, individual needs to select a topic and analyze the audience. He also needs to construct a good introduction, content and conclusion that is well prepared in the delivering the speech which leads to a better understanding to the listeners. He also needs to know the audience’s culture and ways of interaction. This is also a speech community. For example, a public speaking given by a speaker to the listeners entitled, “How to overcome stress in our workplace?” And yet, the listeners of course are those who work in the office or workplace that occur stress are the one who really listen to the speaker. The speaker needs to convey the listeners. He needs to attract the listeners and getting them along happily to listen his public presentation in order to have the group of speech community.
A part from that, interviewing is a way of human communication. Interviewing is a form of interpersonal communication in which two people interact most often face-to-face, largely through a question-and-answer format to achieve specific goals. It usually involves two people and sometimes more. At job fairs, interviewers may talk with several persons at once if there are a lot of applicants. Although interviewing is usually occurs face-to-face, it also happens in via computer which is through the e-mail, IRC Chatting Centre or Internet Relay Chat groups too. Interviewing is usually proceeds through questions and answers. It formally done and it is one kind of speech community. The interviewers of three will interview and examine the applicant. They need to apply the changes formally in the interview in order to have an effective interview the applicant.
The next way of human communication is informative speech. Informative speech is a conversation where speaker will tell the listener something that they didn’t know before. The listeners can gain new knowledge easily, avoid information overload and recognize cultural variations. It can be done to both parties and in groups. It is also like persuasive speech where speaker’s speech is to strengthen or change the attitudes or beliefs of the listeners. This speech community can persuade the listeners’ changes of point of views. A good situation is during the marketing presentation. For example, the salesman of Cosway Corporation Berhad is giving his presentation to the listeners, the customers as a community who usually attend and curiosity to know new products. The salesman shares the knowledge and experience to them. He will deliver his presentation about the benefits of getting these newly product. He can even adapt and attract the customers. Marketing is one of the ways of human communication in speech community. Another example is in the situation of the village. An Iban graduate man who works in the town is going back to the village. He usually speaks English Language in the office but while in the village, he needs to change and adapt his culture to speak Iban Language with his elders, parents, relatives and friends.
No doubt, communication in the speech community is a package of signals that involves content and relationship dimensions. It is also known as a transactional process. It is inevitable, irreversible and unrepeatable. It is also a context of culture where occurs the incidence of intercultural contact. For example, two different races with different cultures like the late Pope John Paul was meeting with our previous Prime Minister, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad in the year 2002 in the Vatican, Rome. Both from different religious and yet, they respect one another throughout the meeting.
To conclude, speech community happens and still depending to any related situation. It might change at a time and speaker needs to adapt at once to have a good communication with the listeners. By this, they may avoid misunderstanding and achieve effectively the conservation. Giving feedback and respect others at the time is the best way of communication. Speech community is a nature of language. We need to accept and appreciate this human communication. It is a communication of multicultural context and a process of conveying messages with others.


2.2 Macro context of spoken language use in the community
Every communication needs a good speaker to convey messages to the listener meaningfully. It is like a process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs or behaviour. It is also a product where information communicated as a verbal or written message. Without a perfect communication, we will get a misunderstanding with one another. Communication leads us towards solidarity in the speech community.
Macro context is a speech functions which is general or overall to the community goals. According to Mohd Faiz Abdullah in the module of BBI3213 Speech Communication, he stated that there are two reasons why macro context is needed in the spoken language which use in the community. Firstly, it is to build community where individuals creates and replaces the sense of community. It is a must for us to communicate with one another. Secondly, to create a communication in the community, we need to promote and maintain cultural diversity. We as humans have our rights to hear and speak to respect others’ rights and views of minorities.
Macro context can help us to have a good communication with others especially in negotiating well in the communication. Macro context can build a good relationship between individual, groups, races as well as learning others’ cultures. Without macro context, a communication will be a failure and not successfully. At the same time, it leads and promotes to emerge the ethnic-minority groups too. We can learn a lot of others’ cultures in the group. For example, in the fish market in Sarawak, a Chinese customer usually buys fish from the fishmonger, a Malay every morning. She uses to go to the same fishmonger because he gives a good prices and discounts to her. Both of them are difference races but they speak in Sarawak Language. Sarawak Language is a bit like Malay Language. They use this language because it is easy for them to communicate well. The Chinese customer can speak other language and accept others’ culture too. This enhances a good communication in the speech community. Culture affects us to think and to talk wisely in communication. By this context, it gives a good opening, feed forward, business, feedback and closing to one another.

2.3 Micro context of spoken language use in the community
In contrast, micro context consists on the socio-physiological aspect of groups within the community. According to Van Lier, he stated that micro context describes the views as involving the interactive context.
The following are the functions of micro context of spoken language use in the community. As we all know that micro functions of speech are details or specific individual goals to the communication in speech community. Firstly, micro context leads us to express ourselves in the communication. Here it means that we need to be a member of the community so achieve our goals of communication. For example, having as participant in the special days of occasion involving own community like a prayer service in the mosque. Individual needs to be more open to receive others which in the same groups. Another example is in the situation of a political meeting. As a member of Barisan Nasional, individual attend an annual general meeting where all are from the same members to choose new committee at the same time discussing the same issue in the meeting.
The second micro context is to spread information within and without the community. Here, communication provides information for a successful process in the conversation. It can be from the same or different groups in a communication. For example, a research presentations of a lecturer to the teachers about “Students’ abilities in Literature” A lecturer has a highly education background in literature why teachers from many schools which is general background as long as they are English teachers, they come to attend the presentations and listen attentively about the lecturer’s sharing of knowledge and experience. Indeed, teachers have different demands and needs. As long as they can come together in the presentations, communication is achieving successfully.
The next micro context function is to change individual that gives effect to them in the intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, institutional, mass and intercultural communication. Indeed, communication can change us immediately. A good example, mass communication leads to buy new Proton Exora rather than buying a Proton Persona as the first choice. As long as the changes benefit us, communication leads us to achievement and goals.

3.0 Discussion related to the problems / questions
3.1 Why speech community is needed?
Every communication needs speech community in order to have a good conversation. To be effective in the multicultural context, it must be free. Speech community is needed in order for speaker and listener to understand and both get involves in the communication. If there is a good speech community, the process of communication is achieved. It helps the communication goes smoothly and well.
Indeed, speech community is needed as it is a part of art and culture. We learn others’ art and culture in communication. For example, a Malay friend who is able to speak in Mandarin Language is communicating Mandarin Language with his Chinese friends. It is an ease for him to do so. At the same time, he learns his friends’ culture at the time for example eating noodles with chopsticks. It is interesting to know others and the more we learn, the more knowledge we gain. If we learn extra language, it is easily for us to look for job that needs extra language. Thus, many employers are searching for employees that able to speak several languages like Malay Language, English Language, Mandarin Language and some small dialects too.
Apart from that, we will not left behind if we know to change and adapt ourselves in groups of communication. It is a symbol of identity and integrating in the community. For example, individual can listen to other like Iban Language (a Sarawak race) even though she is a Chinese. Her friend who speaks Iban Language is announcing the offer to apply the studies in the universities to her friends in a group. The Chinese girl can listen and understand Iban Language and so it benefits her and she will not left behind regarding to the application of universities studies. We can get more knowledge and getting more information easily.
Speech community leads an effectively social interaction rule of communication. Moreover, we can respect others and accept speech community in the group. It is not fixed and social norms may be found between old and new norms. We can gain more experience and more moral values. We can be friendlier to others and by this, effectively communication leads to the achievement of the conversation. We can build a good community and promote and maintain cultural diversity. We can also spread information and receive feedback from others easily.

3.2 Problems related in speech community
Sometimes, speech community has problems in the communication too. Individual might face difficulties in understanding the groups or community language that they use. The language variation that they use is not suitable with the community language. Individual may left behind and may get the wrong information if he does not understand the conversation. For example, a teacher is asking the students in the primary school level to complete the writing exercises. He asks the students to write about life in the community service with the helpless children. I would like to say students face understanding and get difficulties to complete this task. They may not know how to start to write a good essay with the written topic as they never face that situation and the environment before.
Some other problems occur in the speech community such as the differences of both speakers and listeners on their age and group. Sometimes, both communicators with differences age and group may find difficulties to communicate well. For example, is it possible for a young adult to talk to an old lady with the age of eighty? Is it possible for European that does not have any Penan Language background to speak with the Penan (a small minority Sarawak race)? The European will find difficulties to speak with the Penan community in the villages while having their volunteering work as the Trekforce members. They really need to prepare themselves by attending short courses or doing some practices and research on the language so that they can communicate and understand what the Penan villagers want to communicate with them.
Besides, problems like differences in the gender and class affect the communication. It is difficult for a ‘low-class’ people to speak with the king. They have the gap of communicate with one another. Differences in the gender play the roles of communication. For example in the group discussion of the 8 ladies, a man found himself difficult to take part in the group discussion.
Moreover, problem like questioning and changing the topic in the conversation might stop and failure a good communication. Sometimes, we find difficult to answer one question if we are not so clear. We might even change the topic on the conversation. In the nutshell, problems in speech community occur daily in our lives.

3.3 Ways of improving in speech community
In order to have a good speech in the community or in a group, one must respect one another especially their arts, cultures and races. We must have the limit while in a communication with other groups of people. For example during a festival of Hari Raya Aidilfitri visiting, a non-Muslim can talk about food with their Muslim friend who invites him. This non-Muslim individual must know the limit while talking about food. He must not talk about the pork dishes as it is wrong to do so. We must respect others’ races and their culture as well. We should not talk nonsense to those who are not from the same races or groups as well as the same too. Communication has the limit to do so.
While communicate with others, we must be social in the interaction. We should be friendlier and impart moral values during communication. In other words, communicate with a better tone and impart moral values are the best policies of communication. Respecting and politeness need to play a part in the communication. For example while conversation in a group discussion; students need to share their opinions and views about a topic given. They must remember that they should not be too rude or rough while communication. If a statement is not clear in the discussion, one must help to give clear clarification so that everyone will not misunderstanding to the topic discuss. Helping others in the communication can improve a speech community.
In a communication, we have the free will to speak as long as it is not offence or hurting others in a conversation. We can speak out our views, opinions and information in the community but always remember that they will be a limitation and respect to others. Thus, this communication gives us a good purpose where by getting the feedback, we can learn new experience and knowledge from others as long as willing to accept others’ views and opinions that they shared. Sometimes, it is true that learning and getting information from others can experience success and we are more educated to know more. We need to be self-esteem and freely to accept new information. Besides, we can learn our mistakes during the communication. For example in a group of a speech community during in a situation in the office, colleagues share ideas in the best way of marketing. As a positive individual, we should listen and adapt their information that can improve us in our work. No doubt, it seems like taking others’ ideas but it helps if we adapt and add some new ideas to improve ourselves.

4.0 Conclusion
4.1 Summary and conclusions
Speech community is a group of speakers who are either in the same races or groups; or others, who recognize the same language or dialect as a standard in the communication. Speech community is rather interpersonal and willingly to accept others easily in the communication. It can be differences of races, people or groups as long as they can cope up with the standard language; speech community exists at the spot.
Speech community gives good purposes to the understanding of the communication with one and another. At the same time, it contains the contexts of human communication such as interpersonal relationship with family and friends, group discussion, public speaking or presentation, interviewing, informative speech and formal or informal conversation with others. It is a transactional process of communication where the information that we receive through feedback enhance us to the achievement of our goals in the communication.
Speech community has the macro and micro contexts of spoken language use in the communication. It is depending to the situation of changes at a time and both speaker and listener need to adapt themselves quickly of the changes. Speech community can build a good relationship in the community. It also can maintain and promote the cultural diversity of the community. Speech community can lead us to spread information within and without the community. Besides, we can be more aware and imparts moral values in the communication.
Speech community plays an important role in every communication. It produces a good relationship between the speaker and listener. To have a good conversation in the community, one must learn to respect others’ cultures and accept others’ views and opinions. We must be more social in the interaction so that we can feel more freely to speak. Feedback in a communication can be taken as new challenges in our daily activities. We can be more self-esteem, more motivate and spiritual community. Being honest and observe cultural norms and values of others help us to have a good relationship with one another. We can discover in the interpersonal communication. To have a good and effective communication in the multicultural context, we must be free and willing to accept and share in the conversation.

4.2 Implications, suggestions and resolutions
4.2.1 Implications of the speech community assignment
In this paper, we are able to see the implication where speech community is the best communication where we can learn to communicate and share information with others in a group with a standard language to speak. We can be more community minded and imparts moral values in every communication in order to respect others especially in the sense of cultures and races. We can practice the context of human communication in the speech community properly to use the ways shared in the assignment and see the impact we receive. By the implication here, we can improve and learn new knowledge and experience in the communication with community spirit.

4.2.2 Suggestions to improve the speech community assignment
Here are some suggestions to improve this assignment. Firstly, I should do more reading to get more information from references books and Internet in order to produce a good and quality writing. Moreover, reading more references can generate my ideas to write a clear research paper in the topic of the assignment given. Secondly, I should ask and seek help from the lecturer and tutor to get clear explanation in this assignment so that I can write properly based on the questions given. I have to actively participate to do this from the beginning to the end of the assignment. Writing a good research paper needs a lot of drafts and practices in order to have a quality assignment.

4.2.3 The resolutions in the speech community assignment
The resolution in this assignment is firstly, I can try some ways of human communication context and practice it in the real situation of speech community to see what I can get. For example in the situation of the group discussion or interpersonal relationship, I can realize and know how it goes whether it is macro or micro contexts of spoken language use in the community. Secondly, I need to work hard and smart to complete a good and successful research paper in the assignment. More hard work and effort need to put on in this challenging speech community assignment.

PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION

- HMEF5043
ASSIGNMENT 45%


Abstract
This coursework tries to elaborate in detail the three theories of Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism.
A brief explanation about learning as a a whole and simple definitions pertaining and preliminary note or explanation pertaining each of the three learning theoretical perspectives are written concisely as an introduction to the essay.
This essay also discusses and explains in detail on theories of learning under each theoretical perspectives as well as the detailed account on how one theory or perspective differs from the other, with adequate coverage of the perspectives.

1. Introduction

According to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, a common definition of learning is a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Illeris,2000; Ormorod, 1995). Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place. Explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning. Learning theories have two chief values according to Hill(2002). One is in providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems. The theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those variables that are crucial in finding solutions.
There are three main categories or philosophical frameworks under which learning theories fall: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. And constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts.
Below are some of the definitions for behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism which can be accessible in the web:-
Definitions for behaviorism
i. A school of psychology that confines itself to the study of observable and quantifiable aspects of behavior and excludes subjective phenomena, such as emotions or motives. Also called behavioral psychology.
ii. Theory of learning that stresses the importance of having a particular form of behavior reinforced by someone, other than the student, to shape or control what is learned.
Definitions for constructivism
i. Contructivism is a theory where the emphasis is placed on the learner than the educator. It views the learners as an active creator of knowledge, who learn by observing, manipulating and interpreting the world around him/herself. Learning is viewed as the result of mental construction.

ii. Teaching philosophy based on the concept that learning (cognition) is the result of 'mental construction' students constructs their own understanding by reflecting on their personal experiences, and by relating the new knowledge with what they already know. Each student creates his or her own 'schemas' or mental-models to make sense of the world, and accommodates the new knowledge (learns) by adjusting them. One of its main principles is that learning is search for meaning, therefore, to be effective, a teacher must help the student in discovering his or her own meaning. Although based on cognitive psychology research, its history goes back to the ancient Greece, the Socratic method.

Definitions for cognitivism
i. The psychology of learning which emphasizes human cognition or intelligence as a special endowment enabling mean to form hypotheses and develop intellectually.
www.culi.chula.ac.th/etest/definition.html

A theory of learning. The idea of cognitivism is that learning is a conscious, rational process. People learn by making models, maps and frameworks in their mind. Cognitivism is the opposite of Behaviorism.


2. My understanding about Behaviorism, Cognitivism AND Constructivism
A. Behaviorism is also called the learning perspective (where any physical action is a behavior) is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms do — including acting, thinking and feeling—can and should be regarded as behaviors. The school of psychology maintains that behaviors as such can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as the mind. Behaviorism comprises the position that all theories should have observational correlates but that there are no philosophical differences between publicly observable processes (such as actions) and privately observable processes (such as thinking and feeling).
From early psychology in the 19th century, the behaviorist school of thought ran concurrently and shared commonalities with the psychoanalytic and Gestalt movements in psychology into the 20th century; but also differed from the mental philosophy of the Gestalt psychologists in critical ways. Its main influences were Ivan Pavlov, who investigated classical conditioning, Edward Lee Thorndike, John B. Watson who rejected introspective methods and sought to restrict psychology to experimental methods, and B.F. Skinner who conducted research on operant conditioning. In the second half of the twentieth century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of the cognitive revolution

B. Cognitivism
Cognition means the study of the human mind (not brain), while, cognitivism is the psychology of learning which emphasizes human cognition or intelligence as a special endowment enabling mean to form hypotheses and develop intellectually.The cognitivist revolution replaced behaviorism in 1960s as the dominant paradigm. Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental activities – opening the “black box” of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding how people learn. Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving need to be explored. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions. Learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata.
A response to behaviorism, people are not “programmed animals” that merely respond to environmental stimuli; people are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of thinking. Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring in the learner’s head. Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain outcomes.
C. Contructivism
Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active, constructive process. The learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. New information is linked to to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective.
Teaching philosophy based on the concept that learning(cognition) is the result of 'mental construction' students constructs their own understanding by reflecting on their personal experiences, and by relating the new knowledge with what they already know. Each student creates his or her own 'schemas' or mental-models to make sense of the world, and accommodates the new knowledge (learns) by adjusting them. One of its main principles is that learning is search for meaning, therefore, to be effective, a teacher must help the student in discovering his or her own meaning. Although based on cognitive psychology research, its history goes back to the ancient Greece, the Socratic method.

Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own “rules” and “mental models,” which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences.



3. BEHAVIOURISM THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF LEARNING
Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. In defining behavior, behaviorist learning theories emphasize changes in behavior that result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner. Behavior is directed by stimuli. An individual selects one response instead of another because of prior conditioning and psychological drives existing at the moment of the action (Parkay & Hass, 2000).
Behaviorists assert that the only behaviors worthy of study are those that can be directly observed; thus, it is actions, rather than thoughts or emotions, which are the legitimate object of study. Behaviorist theory does not explain abnormal behavior in terms of the brain or its inner workings. Rather, it posits that all behavior is learned habits, and attempts to account for how these habits are formed.
In assuming that human behavior is learned, behaviorists also hold that all behaviors can also be unlearned, and replaced by new behaviors; that is, when a behavior becomes unacceptable, it can be replaced by an acceptable one. A key element to this theory of learning is the rewarded response. The desired response must be rewarded in order for learning to take place (Parkay & Hass, 2000).
In education, advocates of behaviorism have effectively adopted this system of rewards and punishments in their classrooms by rewarding desired behaviors and punishing inappropriate ones. Rewards vary, but must be important to the learner in some way. For example, if a teacher wishes to teach the behavior of remaining seated during the class period, the successful student's reward might be checking the teacher's mailbox, running an errand, or being allowed to go to the library to do
homework at the end of the class period. As with all teaching methods, success depends on each student's stimulus and response, and on associations made by each learner.
John B. Watson (1878-1958) and B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) are the two principal originators of behaviorist approaches to learning. Watson believed that human behavior resulted from specific stimuli that elicited certain responses. Watson's basic premise was that conclusions about human development should be based on observation of overt behavior rather than speculation about subconscious motives or latent cognitive processes. (Shaffer, 2000). Watson's view of learning was based in part on the studies of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Pavlov was studying the digestive process and the interaction of salivation and stomach function when he realized that reflexes in the autonomic nervous system closely linked these phenomena. To determine whether external stimuli had an affect on this process, Pavlov rang a bell when he gave food to the experimental dogs. He noticed that the dogs salivated shortly before they were given food. He discovered that when the bell was rung at repeated feedings, the sound of the bell alone (a conditioned stimulus) would cause the dogs to salivate (a conditioned response). Pavlov also found that the conditioned reflex was repressed if the stimulus proved "wrong" too frequently; if the bell rang and no food appeared, the dog eventually ceased to salivate at the sound of the bell.

Classical Conditioning

Figure 1. This illustration shows the steps of classical conditioning.
1. Food= salivation
2. Food + Stimulus = salivation (conditioned stimulus)
3. Bell alone produces salivation (conditioned response)
Expanding on Watson's basic stimulus-response model, Skinner developed a more comprehensive view of conditioning, known as operant conditioning. His model was based on the premise that satisfying responses are conditioned, while unsatisfying ones are not. Operant conditioning is the rewarding of part of a desired behavior or a random act that approaches it. Skinner remarked that "the things we call pleasant have an energizing or strengthening effect on our behavior" (Skinner, 1972, p. 74). Through Skinner's research on animals, he concluded that both animals and humans would repeat acts that led to favorable outcomes, and suppress those that produced unfavorable results (Shaffer, 2000). If a rat presses a bar and receives a food pellet, he will be likely to press it again. Skinner defined the bar-pressing response as operant, and the food pellet as a reinforcer. Punishers, on the other hand, are consequences that suppress a response and decrease the likelihood that it will occur in the future. If the rat had been shocked every time it pressed the bar that behavior would cease. Skinner believed the habits that each of us develops result from our unique operant learning experiences (Shaffer, 2000).



Operant Conditioning

Figure 2. This illustration illustrates operant conditioning. The mouse pushes the lever and receives a food reward. Therefore, he will push the lever repeatedly in order to get the treat.

Educational implication
Behaviorist techniques have long been employed in education to promote behavior that is desirable and discourage that which is not. Among the methods derived from behaviorist theory for practical classroom application are contracts, consequences, reinforcement, extinction, and behavior modification.

Contracts, Consequences, Reinforcement, and Extinction
Simple contracts can be effective in helping children focus on behavior change. The relevant behavior should be identified, and the child and counselor should decide the terms of the contract. Behavioral contracts can be used in school as well as at home. It is helpful if teachers and parents work together with the student to ensure that the contract is being fulfilled. Two examples of behavior contracts are listed below:
A student is not completing homework assignments. The teacher and the student design a contract providing that the student will stay for extra help, ask parents for help, and complete assigned work on time. Teacher will be available after school, and during free periods for additional assistance.
A student is misbehaving in class. The teacher and student devise a behavioral contract to minimize distractions. Provisions include that the student will be punctual, will sit in front of the teacher, will raise hand with questions/comments, and will not leave his seat without permission.
Consequences occur immediately after a behavior. Consequences may be positive or negative, expected or unexpected, immediate or long-term, extrinsic or intrinsic, material or symbolic (a failing grade), emotional/interpersonal or even unconscious. Consequences occur after the "target" behavior occurs, when either positive or negative reinforcement may be given. Positive reinforcement is presentation of a stimulus that increases the probability of a response. This type of reinforcement occurs frequently in the classroom. Teachers may provide positive reinforcement by:
 Smiling at students after a correct response.
 Commending students for their work.
 Selecting them for a special project.
 Praising students' ability to parents.
Negative reinforcement increases the probability of a response that removes or prevents an adverse condition. Many classroom teachers mistakenly believe that negative reinforcement is punishment administered to suppress behavior; however, negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, as does positive reinforcement. Negative implies removing a consequence that a student finds unpleasant. Negative reinforcement might include:
 Obtaining a score of 80% or higher makes the final exam optional.
 Submitting all assignments on time results in the lowest grade being dropped.
 Perfect attendance is rewarded with a "homework pass."
Punishment involves presenting a strong stimulus that decreases the frequency of a particular response. Punishment is effective in quickly eliminating undesirable behaviors. Examples of punishment include:
 Students who fight are immediately referred to the principal.
 Late assignments are given a grade of "0".
 Three tardies to class results in a call to the parents.
 Failure to do homework results in after-school detention (privilege of going home is removed).
Extinction decreases the probability of a response by contingent withdrawal of a previously reinforced stimulus. Examples of extinction are:
 A student has developed the habit of saying the punctuation marks when reading aloud. Classmates reinforce the behavior by laughing when he does so. The teacher tells the students not to laugh, thus extinguishing the behavior.
 A teacher gives partial credit for late assignments; other teachers think this is unfair; the teacher decides to then give zeros for the late work.
 Students are frequently late for class, and the teacher does not require a late pass, contrary to school policy. The rule is subsequently enforced, and the students arrive on time.

Modeling, Shaping, and Cueing
Modeling is also known as observational learning. Albert Bandura has suggested that modeling is the basis for a variety of child behavior. Children acquire many favorable and unfavorable responses by observing those around them. A child who kicks another child after seeing this on the playground, or a student who is always late for class because his friends are late is displaying the results of observational learning.
Shaping is the process of gradually changing the quality of a response. The desired behavior is broken down into discrete, concrete units, or positive movements, each of which is reinforced as it progresses towards the overall behavioral goal. In the following scenario, the classroom teacher employs shaping to change student behavior: the class enters the room and sits down, but continue to talk after the bell rings. The teacher gives the class one point for improvement, in that all students are seated. Subsequently, the students must be seated and quiet to earn points, which may be accumulated and redeemed for rewards.

Cueing may be as simple as providing a child with a verbal or non-verbal cue as to the appropriateness of a behavior. For example, to teach a child to remember to perform an action at a specific time, the teacher might arrange for him to receive a cue immediately before the action is expected rather than after it has been performed incorrectly. For example, if the teacher is working with a student that habitually answers aloud instead of raising his hand, the teacher should discuss a cue such as hand-raising at the end of a question posed to the class.

Behavior Modification
Behavior modification is a method of eliciting better classroom performance from reluctant students. It has six basic components:
1. Specification of the desired outcome (What must be changed and how it will be evaluated?) One example of a desired outcome is increased student participation in class discussions.
2. Development of a positive, nurturing environment (by removing negative stimuli from the learning environment). In the above example, this would involve a student-teacher conference with a review of the relevant material, and calling on the student when it is evident that she knows the answer to the question posed.
3. Identification and use of appropriate reinforcer (intrinsic and extrinsic rewards). A student receives an intrinsic reinforcer by correctly answering in the presence of peers, thus increasing self-esteem and confidence.
4. Reinforcement of behavior patterns develop until the student has established a pattern of success in engaging in class discussions.
5. Reduction in the frequency of rewards--a gradual decrease the amount of one-on-one review with the student before class discussion.
6. Evaluation and assessment of the effectiveness of the approach based on teacher expectations and student results. Compare the frequency of student responses in class discussions to the amount of support provided, and determine whether the student is independently engaging in class discussions (Brewer, Campbell, & Petty, 2000).

Classroom importance - Using behaviorist theory in the classroom can be rewarding for both students and teachers. Behavioral change occurs for a reason; students work for things that bring them positive feelings, and for approval from people they admire. They change behaviors to satisfy the desires they have learned to value. They generally avoid behaviors they associate with unpleasantness and develop habitual behaviors from those that are repeated often (Parkay & Hass, 2000). The entire rationale of behavior modification is that most behavior is learned. If behaviors can be learned, then they can also be unlearned or relearned.
In my own teaching, I have found that a behavior that goes unrewarded will be extinguished. Consistently ignoring an undesirable behavior will go far toward eliminating it. When the teacher does not respond angrily, the problem is forced back to its source--the student. Other classroom strategies I have found successful are contracts, consequences, punishment and others that have been described in detail earlier in this chapter. Behaviorist learning theory is not only important in achieving desired behavior in mainstream education; special education teachers have classroom behavior modification plans to implement for their students. These plans assure success for these students in and out of school.


4. Cognitivism.
During the 1960s, discontent with the inadequacies of behaviourism another school of thought was developing besides the behavioural thinking, the cognitive aspects. The

behaviourist perspective could not easily explain why people attempt to organise and make sense of the information they learn. One example includes remembering general meanings rather than word for word information. Among learning psychologists there emerged a growing realisation that mental events or cognition could no longer be ignored
Cognitive psychologists share with behaviourists the belief that the study of learning should be objective and that learning theories should be developed from the results of empirical research. However, cognitivists disagree with the behaviourists in one critical aspect. By observing the responses that individuals make to different stimulus conditions, cognitivists believe that they can draw inferences about the nature of the internal cognitive processes that produce those responses.
Many ideas and assumptions of cognitivism can be traced back to the early decades of the twentieth century. Of all theories, the theories of Jean Piaget of Switzerland are the ones that have provided psychology with very elaborated account of developmental changes in cognitive abilities.

Jean Piaget (1896-1980).
Jean Piaget was one of the most influential cognitive psychologist. He was a student of biology and zoology and learnt that survival requires adaptation. Therefore he viewed the development of human cognition, or intelligence, as the continual struggle of a very complex organism trying to adapt to a very complex environment. According to Piaget´s theory, human development can be outlined in terms of functions and cognitive structures. The functions are inborn biological processes that are identical for every one and stay unchanged throughout our lives. The purpose of these functions is to construct internal cognitive structures. The structures, in contrast, changes repeatedly as the child grows (Vasa, R., Haith, M.M., Miller,S.A.,1995, p.,33).
Piaget emphasises on two main functions; one is organisation (or equilibrium). Organisation refers to the fact that all cognitive structures are interrelated and that any new knowledge must be fitted into the existing system. It is the need to integrate the new information, rather than adding them on, that force our cognitive structure to become more elaborate.
The second general function is adaptation. Adaptation refers to the tendency of the organism to fit with its environment in ways that promote survival. It is composed of two terms; assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation is the tendency to understand new experience in terms of existing knowledge. Whenever we come across something new, we try to make sense of it, built upon our existing cognitive structures.
Accommodation occurs when the new information is too complex to be integrated into the existing structure - this means that, cognitive structures change in response to new experiences (Spencer, K., 1991,p.,175).
Piaget did many experiments on children’s way of thinking and concluded that human beings go through several distinct stages of cognitive development. Each stage involves the acquisition of new skills and rest upon the successful completion of the preceding one.
The first stage is the sensorimotor, (0-2year). Until about four months of age, the infant can not differentiate itself from the environment. Gradually the child learns to distinguish people from objects and that both have an existence independent of their immediate perception. This stage draws it name, sensorimotor, from that the child learns mainly by touching objects, manipulating them and physically exploring the environment. By the end of this stage the child understands that its environment has distinctive and stable properties.

The next stage is called the pre-operational (2years-7years). This is the stage when the child acquires a mastery of a language and becomes able to use words to represent objects and images in a symbolic fashion. Piaget terms this stage pre-operational because children are not yet able to use their developing mental capabilities systematically. At this stage children are egocentric, which means that the child has the tendency to interpret the world exclusively with its own position. The child does not understand, for an example, that others see things and objects from a different perspective from their own. During this phase of development the children have no general understanding of categories of thought that adults take for granted, ideas such as causality, speed, weight or number.

The third stage is the concrete operational period (7years-11years). During this period children master abstract, logical notions. They are able to handle ideas such as causality without much difficulty, and they are fit to carry out the mathematical operations of multiplying, dividing and subtracting. By this stage children are much less egocentric.

The fourth stage is called the formal operational period (11+). During adolescence, the developing child becomes able to comprehend highly abstract and hypothetical concepts. When faced with a problem, children at this stage should be able to review all possible ways of solving it and go through them theoretically in order to reach a solution.

According to Piaget, the first three stages of development are general, but not all adults come to the formal operational stage. The development of formal operational thought relies in part on the process of schooling. Adults of limited educational achievement tend to remain to think in more concrete terms and retain large traces of egocentrism (Giddens, 1994).

The educational interest of Piaget´s work lies firstly in this procedure he used to make educationists aware of the child’s thought processes and the conditions under which intellectual structures are established at different ages.
There are four principles that are most often cited in Piaget´s theory regarding to education. The first is the important of readiness. This principal follows from his emphasis on assimilation. Experience, educational or otherwise, does not simply happen to a child; rather it must always be assimilated to current cognitive structure. A new experience can only be of any value if the child can make sense of it. Teaching that is far away the child’s level is unlikely to be useful.
The second principle concerns the motivation for cognitive activity. Educational content that is either to advanced or too simple is unlikely to be interesting. The educational subject has to be slightly beyond the current level of the child so that it provides experience familiar enough to assimilate however challenging enough to provoke disequilibrium.
The third is the awareness of what level the child has reached and the information of what it can be expected at that level and what not. Piaget´s studies often identify steps and sequences through which particular content domains are mastered. It is therefor possible not only to determine were the child is but also to know the natural next steps for development.
The final principle is more functional. It concerns Piaget´s emphasis on intelligence as an action. In his view education should be build on the child’s natural curiosity and natural tendency to act on the world in order to understand it. Knowledge is most meaningful when children construct it themselves rather than having it imposed upon them (Vasa,R., Haith,M.M.,Miller,S.A.,1992).
The experience in acquiring a new knowledge through action allows two different kinds of knowledge to develop, the physical experience and the logico-mathematical experience. Physical experience produces knowledge of the properties of the objects acted upon. Logico-mathematical experience result in knowledge, not of the objects, but of the actions themselves and their results.
From physical experience, one would gain knowledge of the weight of objects; or the fact that, other things being equal, weight increases as volume increases, and so on. When speaking of logico-mathematical experience the point is that even the highest forms of abstract reasoning have their origin in action (Donaldson, 1987).
The aim for education, according to Piaget, is to make individuals who are critical, creative and inventive discoverers. So the major part of the child’s learning relies on active experimentation and discovery. The active classroom has been associated with the term progressive teaching, where pupils are in active role, learning predominantly by discovery techniques, with emphasis on creative expression. Subject matter tends to be combined, with the teacher performing as a guide to educational experiences and encouraging cooparitive work. External rewards and punishments are seen as being unimportant, and there is not so much concern with traditional academic standards and testing (Spencer, 1994).
As a biologist Piaget tended to look at development more from the physical change and the readiness for each stage to develop any further. Another perspective in the cognitive movement was from those who saw the connection between the environment and the child development in a constructive way, and Jerome Burner’s ideas are those that are well known.

5. Characteristics of Constructivist Learning & Teaching

Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge. In other words, "learning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences." Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. This is also known as social constructivism Social constructivists posits that knowledge is constructed when individuals engage socially in talk and activity about shared problems or tasks. Learning is seen as the process by which individuals are introduced to a culture by more skilled members"(Driver et al., 1994)
Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building. Regardless of the variety, constructivism promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure
The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in self-directed learning, transformational
Learning,experiential learning, situated cognition, and reflective practice.
Constructivism is basically a theory -- based on observation and scientific study -- about how people learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge. To do this, we must ask questions, explore, and assess what we know.

In the classroom, the constructivist view of learning can point towards a number of different teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging students to use active techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge and then to reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing. The teacher makes sure she understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then build on them.

Constructivist teachers encourage students to constantly assess how the activity is helping them gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the constructivist classroom ideally become "expert learners." This gives them ever-broadening tools to keep learning. With a well-planned classroom environment, the students learn HOW TO LEARN.

You might look at it as a spiral. When they continuously reflect on their experiences, students find their ideas gaining in complexity and power, and they develop increasingly strong abilities to integrate new information. One of the teacher's main roles becomes to encourage this learning and reflection process.

For example: Groups of students in a science class are discussing a problem in physics. Though the teacher knows the "answer" to the problem, she focuses on helping students restate their questions in useful ways. She prompts each student to reflect on and examine his or her current knowledge. When one of the students comes up with the relevant concept, the teacher seizes upon it, and indicates to the group that this might be a fruitful avenue for them to explore. They design and perform relevant experiments. Afterward, the students and teacher talk about what they have learned, and how their observations and experiments helped (or did not help) them to better understand the concept.

Contrary to criticisms by some (conservative/traditional) educators, constructivism does not dismiss the active role of the teacher or the value of expert knowledge. Constructivism modifies that role, so that teachers help students to construct knowledge rather than to reproduce a series of facts. The constructivist teacher provides tools such as problem-solving and inquiry-based learning activities with which students formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, and pool and convey their knowledge in a collaborative learning environment. Constructivism transforms the student from a passive recipient of information to an active participant in the learning process. Always guided by the teacher, students construct their knowledge actively rather than just mechanically ingesting knowledge from the teacher or the textbook.

Constructivism is also often misconstrued as a learning theory that compels students to "reinvent the wheel." In fact, constructivism taps into and triggers the student's innate curiosity about the world and how things work. Students do not reinvent the wheel but, rather, attempt to understand how it turns, how it functions. They become engaged by applying their existing knowledge and real-world experience, learning to hypothesize, testing their theories, and ultimately drawing conclusions from their findings.

The best way for you to really understand what constructivism is and what it means in your classroom is by seeing examples of it at work, speaking with others about it, and trying it yourself. As you progress through each segment of this workshop, keep in mind questions or ideas to share with your colleagues.

How does this theory of constructivismdiffer from traditional ideas about teaching and learning?
As with many of the methods addressed in this series of workshops, in the constructivist classroom, the focus tends to shift from the teacher to the students. The classroom is no longer a place where the teacher ("expert") pours knowledge into passive students, who wait like empty vessels to be filled. In the constructivist model, the students are urged to be actively involved in their own process of learning. The teacher functions more as a facilitator who coaches, mediates, prompts, and helps students develop and assess their understanding, and thereby their learning. One of the teacher's biggest jobs becomes ASKING GOOD QUESTIONS.
And, in the constructivist classroom, both teacher and students think of knowledge not as inert factoids to be memorized, but as a dynamic, ever-changing view of the world we live in and the ability to successfully stretch and explore that view.
The chart below compares the traditional classroom to the constructivist one. You can see significant differences in basic assumptions about knowledge, students, and learning. (It's important, however, to bear in mind that constructivists acknowledge that students are constructing knowledge in traditional classrooms, too. It's really a matter of the emphasis being on the student, not on the instructor.)
What are the benefits of constructivism?
i. Children learn more, and enjoy learning more when they are actively involved, rather than passive listeners.
ii. Education works best when it concentrates on thinking and understanding, rather than on rote memorization. Constructivism concentrates on learning how to think and understand.
iii. Constructivist learning is transferable. In constructivist classrooms, students create organizing principles that they can take with them to other learning settings.
iv. Constructivism gives students ownership of what they learn, since learning is based on students' questions and explorations, and often the students have a hand in designing the assessments as well. Constructivist assessment engages the students' initiatives and personal investments in their journals, research reports, physical models, and artistic representations. Engaging the creative instincts develops students' abilities to express knowledge through a variety of ways. The students are also more likely to retain and transfer the new knowledge to real life.
v. By grounding learning activities in an authentic, real-world context, constructivism stimulates and engages students. Students in constructivist classrooms learn to question things and to apply their natural curiousity to the world.
vi. Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating a classroom environment that emphasizes collaboration and exchange of ideas. Students must learn how to articulate their ideas clearly as well as to collaborate on tasks effectively by sharing in group projects. Students must therefore exchange ideas and so must learn to "negotiate" with others and to evaluate their contributions in a socially acceptable manner. This is essential to success in the real world, since they will always be exposed to a variety of experiences in which they will have to cooperate and navigate among the ideas of others.

6. Conclusion
The way we define learning and what we believe about the way learning occurs has important implications for situations in which we want to facilitate changes in what people know and/ or do. Learning theories provide instructional designers with verified instructional strategies and techniques for facilitating learning as well as a foundation for intelligent strategy selection. Yet many designers are operating under the constraints of a limited theoretical background. Owing to the fact that an educator or teaches will only teach well when he can apply the different concept of learning theories, thus it is really important for a teachers and educators to understand what really is “learning” and at the same time to have a clear views of how to utilize and apply it in their real teaching activities so as to give the maximum benefits to their student .

BIBLIOGRAPHY
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8. ^ Kim, 2005. The Effects of a Constructivist Teaching Approach on Student Academic Achievement, Self-Concept, and Learning Strategies. Asia Pacific Education Review, 6(1) p7-19
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Computer mediated education

Instructional Technology – HMEF5083

Assignment

Part A
Computer mediated education in developing countries takes time, money and dedication, but there is pay-off eventually


Abstract

This paper examines and explores the trend of computer-mediated education in some of the developing nations and the effort these countries has put in while integrating ICT into their nations’ education programs. The impact of computer-mediated education in relation to these countries’ prosperity and development is also being highlighted.
This essay also elaborates on how an advanced nation such as Singapore which is backward decades ago, but somehow with the help of computer-mediated education has managed to change her status, which, instead of being poor, have transformed smartly into the advanced nation of Asia.
To implement a mega plan such as the computer-mediated education is of course always a burden to many countries, but compare to the positive impact which it will bring, it is actually very worthwhile because the benefits that a country will derive later is something which is so valuable which may even upgrade a country status in the worldwide ranking!



Introduction
Students in today’s computer-mediated classroom are no longer bound to chalk and talk - style of teaching, neither are they restricted physically by the bricks and mortar that surround them. Instead, they have the opportunity to take part actively in computer enhanced lessons. Teachers today are equipped with notebooks and LCD projectors, they teach with the aid educational software, PowerPoint and etc which make the lesson more interactive, effective and interesting. With the internet access available, students also have at their fingertips the opportunity to explore the world and take in vast amounts of information along their ways of learning.
At the tertiary level of education, the universities have embraced the ideas of computer-mediated education. ICT and internet access are made widely available in the campuses . Lecturers are equipped with laptops as part of their enculturation of technology. Every lecturer also has an e-mail address and may have created personal web page or blogs and often uses the resources from the internet to teach. Course material are uploaded on the web to enable students to learn at any time, including the use of web-based discussion forums as part of the learning activities. Open distance learning institutions such as Atlantic Open University, British Open University, Wawasan Open University, UNITAR and OUM Malaysia and many other similar institutions offer part of the learning activities Via their Learning Menagement System .
Perhaps, in no other area do we hope to benefit more from the influx of computer-based technology in our society than in our country’s educational system. Successful integration of ICT technology in our schools has the potential to transform the way our children learn , to enhance their academic performance and even – to upgrade the status and dignity of our country!

ICT in Indonesian Education
ICT in Indonesian Education started in the mid 90’s. To improve the quality of human resources, the government of Indonesia had used ICT to expand the educational opportunity, to improve the quality and relevance of education, and to increase the efficiency of the educational system. Various efforts to use ICT in education has been carried out by the Indonesian Government, such as :

1. E-learning
Starting from 2002, the Center for Information and Communication Technology for Education (Pustekkom) in cooperation with the Directorate of Secondary Education, and the Directorate of Vocational Education are developing an e-learning program called “e-dukasi”. The objective of this program is to improve the quality of education at high school and vocational school levels through the use of internet. Besides the two directorates, the Center also gets support from the Indonesian Telephone Company (PT Telkom), the Office for the Research and Application of Technologies, Association of Indonesian Internet Service Providers, Network of School Information, Detik.com, and ICT Watch.
At this preliminary stage, learning materials are being developed for the following subjects: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Electronics, and Information Technology.
2. Online Courses
Some private universities have provided lectures through the internet for some courses. One such institution is Petra Christian University of Surabaya.
3. Online Tutorials
One use of information technology for education at higher education is for tutorial purpose for institutions of distance education. One institution that has made use of tutorial via internet is the Indonesian Open University.
4. Joint Research
As a medium which provides for collaboration through the use of information technology, a joint research program has been conducted. This collaboration involves five universities of higher learning, i.e. the Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB), Bogor Institute of Farming (IPB), University of Gadjah Mada and University of Diponegoro.
5. Electronic Library
Nowadays, there is a network of electronic library called Indonesian Digital Library Network which is a network of electronic libraries from the ITB central library (Digital Library), the Post-Graduate Study Library of ITB, the Research Institute of ITB, Eastern Indonesia Universities Development Project (the CIDA project), University of Brawijaya Malang Central Library, University of Muhammaddiyah Malang Library, University of Islamic Religion Library (supported by McGill University Canada) and The Central Data Bank of the Institution of Science of Indonesia (LIPI), Jakarta.
Indonesian Digital Library Network is meant to support efforts to improve the quality of university graduates, to increase sharing of information among institutions of higher learning and research institutions in Indonesia.
6. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
This is an off-line instruction program so it does not depend on access to the internet. The Center for Information and Communication Technology for Education (Pustekkom) have developed computer assisted instruction learning materials for various subject matters and courses. These are interactive learning materials which students can learn on his/her own with minimal assistance from the teacher/lecturer.
The smart school concept in Malaysia
The smart school program started in 1999 with an allocation of RM400 million from the government, of which RM100 million was for the training of administrators and teachers on the Smart School concept and RM300 million was for the implementation of the Smart School Integrated Solution (SSIS) in the 87 pilot schools under the Pilot Project Agreement between the Government and TSS signed in 1999. The main components of the SSIS that were developed and implemented are:

• Browser-based Teaching and Learning Materials (and related print materials) for 4 subjects, namely Bahasa Melayu, English Language, Science and Mathematics;
• A computerised Smart School Management System (SSMS) that encompasses a whole range of school functions such as school governance, student affairs management, educational resources management, financial and technology management;
• Technology Infrastructure comprising IT and non-IT equipment, Local Area Networks, and a virtual private network that connects the pilot schools, the Ministry’s Data Centre and Help Desk;
• Support Services in the form of a centralised Help Desk, and service centres throughout the country to provide maintenance and support;
• Specialized Services such as systems integration, project management, business process reengineering, and change management.

The Smart School Concept

The Smart School initiative has five main goals that focus on the need to prepare a skilled workforce for the Information Age and to help achieve the aims of the National Philosophy of Education. The five goals are to:

i) Provide all-round development of the individual i.e. intellectually, physically, emotionally and spiritually;
ii) Provide opportunities to enhance individual strengths and abilities;
iii) Produce a thinking and technology-literate workforce;
iv) Democratize education; and
v) Increase participation of stakeholders.

Making All Schools Smart

In the original Implementation Plan, the Ministry of Education intended to use the findings of the Pilot Project to prepare a Master Plan to ensure that all schools in the country become smart schools in stages, by the year 2010. The Government of Malaysia would play the role of architect and driver by preparing guidelines and providing basic amenities to schools, and actively encouraging all schools to become smart schools on their own initiative by using their own financial resources and expertise.

Following the Pilot Project from 1999 to 2002 and the post-pilot phase from 2002 to 2005, the Ministry of Education developed a visionary plan for the roll out of the Smart School from 2006 to 2010. The plan to make all the schools “smart” by 2010 would leverage on all the ICT initiatives the Ministry of Education had undertaken such as the Computer Lab project (to provide computer labs to all schools), Teaching of Mathematics and Science in English (PPSMI), Training of teachers to teach Mathematics and Science in English (ETeMS), SchoolNet Project (to provide internet broadband facilities), and Educational TV (ETV).

Much of the activities between 2006 until 2010 will be focused on ensuring that all schools are equipped with the hardware and courseware (and all new courseware developed will be web-enabled), and rigorous training of teachers and administrators for the implementation of the Smart School, and change management programmes conducted to instill the ownership of the smart school initiative among the stakeholders.

It is envisaged that the period between 2010 and 2020 will present opportunities for the advancement of the Smart School applications implemented in all schools. Training and upgrading of professionalism of teachers and administrators will continue as a yearly programme of the Ministry. By 2020, the teaching and learning scenario could be very much different from what it is today. The technologies of tomorrow, coupled with growth in broadband and communication infrastructure could pave the way for a more sophisticated ICT-enabled teaching and learning environment such as virtual learning and tele-immersion (new technology in conceptual stage where teacher’s 3-dimensional image is projected to student’s home and interaction can be done online in real time).

In conclusion, the Malaysian government has made an ambitious and bold initiative and has laid the foundation for schoolchildren, the future citizens, to progress towards achieving Vision 2020.

The E City, Singapore

Singapore’s ICT initiative began in 1991 with the launch of the IT2000 Masterplan. Many initiatives have then been taken for the years that follow, all these initiatives had successfully fulfill the six intended outcomes stated in Singapore’s masterplan II in Education which are:
i. Pupils use IT effectively for active learning
ii. Connections between curriculum, instruction and assessment are enhanced using ICT
iii. Teachers use IT effectively for professional and personal growth
iv. Schools have the capacity and capability in using ICT for school improvement.
v. There is active research in IT education.
vi. There is an infrastructure that supports widespread and effective use in IT.
In order to achieve these intended outcomes, The Singapore and The Ministry of Education has identified five key programmes, along with several project within these programmes , which was given an allocation of fund totaling to 500 billions Singapore dollar!
Singapore’s success in transforming the itself into The E-City Status in the New millennium has further strengthen its status as the most advanced nation in Asia.

The Philippines - The Use Of ICT In Education
The Philippines, another neighbouring coutry of Malaysain also has it taergets in its computer-mediated education plan, among the target listed for the year 2009 are:
• All public secondary schools shall be provided with an appropriate educational technology package;
• 75% of public secondary schools shall have a computer laboratory room equipped with basic multimedia equipment;
• All public secondary schools shall have an electronic library system;
• 75% of public secondary schools teachers shall have been trained in basic computer skills and the use of the Internet and computer-aided instruction; and
• All learning areas of the curriculum shall be able to integrate the application of ICT, where appropriate.

The said Plan focuses on the following thrusts:

• Restructuring the curriculum to integrate the application of ICT to teaching and learning;
• Improving the delivery support system of basic education so that it includes the use of ICT as a component of multi-channel learning;
• Generating funds through non-traditional financing schemes; and
• Retooling human resources at different levels involving sub-systems (Central office, field offices, and schools) and focusing on the different components of basic education.
Financial Resources

Since 1996, an annual appropriation has been provided for the procurement of computer hardware, software and courseware for teacher-training. In calendar year 2002, this allocation amounted to P 155 millions (US$ 3.1 million).

The bulk of investment requirements for implementing ICT in education comes from government funding. However, the Department of Education involves other government agencies, local governments and the private sector to finance various components of building up a programme in ICT in education.

To fast-track the connectivity of schools, Department of Education is undertaking Project LINK, which will upgrade computer resources in schools to allow access to the Internet and give training to teachers on the use of the Internet for research and distance learning. The government will finance a large part of the cost for this project. The costs of connectivity will carried out by the local businesses and the operation and maintenance costs shouldered by city and municipality governments.
The government’s effort in ICT has so far enable 30% of the secondary schools in the country have access to the internet.

Conclusion
As the most valuable educational asset, computer-mediated-education is not only implemented in advanced country, but it is also widely used in the developing nations as well. Such a great change in education no doubt will consume a lot of the nation budget since it needs a thoroughly change in the education system. Governments spend billion of money to retrain the educators and the expertise, the department concerned need enormous allocation and funds to equip the schools and colleges, even though all these effort takes time, money and dedication, but there is pay-off eventually!




Part B
CREATING A TECHNOLOGY ENHANCED LESSON





LESSON PLAN Mathematics Form one - Fractions

1. Tema Pelajaran / Topik
( Lesson Theme / Topic )
Mathematics Form 1 - Fractions

2. Objektif Pembelajaran /
Konsep
( Learning Objectives )
Students will be taught to :
- understand and use the knowledge of fractions as part of a whole

3. Hasil Pembelajaran
( Learning Outcomes )

By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1) Read fractions
2) Describe fractions as part of a whole
3) Represent fractions with diagrams
4) Write fractions for given diagrams

4. Penilaian
( Evaluation )

1) How well can the students understand fractions? (Exercises)
2) Can the weaker students cope with the usage of ICT devices?

5. Peruntukan Masa
( Time Allocation )

80 minutes
6. Ciri-Ciri Kelas
(Class Characteristics)

a) Tingkatan / Tahun
( Form / Year )

b) Pengetahuan Sedia Ada
( Prior Knowledge )




Form 1

1) Students know the sequence of counting.
2) Students have learnt the concept of whole numbers.
3) Students have basic knowledge of MS Word, MS Excel, MS PowerPoint and internet surfing.


7. Liputan Kurikulum
( Curriculum Coverage )

This plan includes the definitions of fractions and the techniques to express fractions.

8. Persediaan Guru
( Teacher’s preparation )

1) Identify topic and subtopics to be taught.
2) Prepare non-ICT materials such as textbook, reference books, teaching aids and exercises.
3) MS PowerPoint slide presentations teaching aids.

9. Penerapan TMK
( ICT Integration )

1) Integration of MS Word, MS PowerPoint, MS Excel and internet.
2) Exercises are prepared in MS Word and MS Excel.
3) Retrieve relevant information of topic from internet.
4) Prepare MS PowerPoint slides (teaching aids).
5) Students are able to use electronic communication (internet surfing and submitting their exercises by email).


10. Persediaan TMK
( ICT Preparation )

1) Booking of computer laboratory.
2) Make sure that the ICT devices such as LCD projector, computers and internet access are in good condition and functioning.
3) Prepare MS PowerPoint slide presentation as teaching aids.
4) Prepare exercises in MS Word.
5) Prepare interactive activities in MS Excel.
6) Print out hard copy of Exercise 3.
7) List out the URLs relevant to topic/subtopics.

11. Aktiviti Pelajaran
( Learning Activities )


1) Induction set: Introduce students with interesting examples of fractions in everyday life.
2) Questioning, discussions and explanation about the meaning of fractions with teaching aids (MS PowerPoint slide presentation).
3) Students completing the exercises given.
4) Submitting their exercises by email and Internet surfing.
5) Homework: Exercise 3 (handouts)

12. Aktiviti Guru
( Teacher’s Activity )
13. Aktiviti Pelajar
( Student’s Activity )

1) Introduce fractions in everyday life (i.e. the sections of chocolate bar or cake as compared to the whole piece).
2) Question students about the meaning of fractions.
3) Explain concept of fractions using MS PowerPoint slide presentation.
4) Ask students to read out loud for the fractions shown on screen.
5) Give exercises and facilitate students’ activities.
6) Requesting students to hand in their exercises by email.
7) Give the URLs to students and facilitate their activities while they are surfing the internet.

1) Observe and construct the meaning of fractions.
2) Voice out constructed ideas.
3) Listen and correcting their meaning of fractions.
4) Read the fractions shown on screen.
5) Work in pairs to solve the exercises given.
6) Submitting their exercises by email.
7) Surf the internet with the given URLs.



14. Keperluan Khusus
( Special Needs )

Besides the teacher’s facilitation, students are require to work in pairs (one of them must be better than the other) so that the better ones can help the weaker ones.


15. Laman Web
( Web Sites )

http://www.interactivestuff.org/sums4fun/shade.html
http://math.rice.edu/~lanius/fractions/frac.html
http://www.geocities.com/EnchantedForest/8112/fractions1.html
http://www.kidsolr.com/math/fractions.html
http://www.visualfractions.com/EnterFraction.html
http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/frames_asid_102_g_l_t_l.html
http://www.harcourtschool.com/activity/con_maths/g03c21.html

16. Literasi
( Literacy )
Fractions, Denominator, Numerator
17. Numerasi
( Numeracy )
1) Identify the number of parts shaded or unshaded.

18. Bahan Rujukan TMK dan
bukan TMK
( ICT and Non-ICT Referals )
1) Curriculum specification
2) Text book and reference books
3) Non-ICT teaching aids – medium-sized chocolate bar, model of a
cake
4) ICT teaching aids – MS PowerPoint slide presentation
5) URLs related to topic/subtopics


19. Penerapan Nilai Murni
( Integration of Good Values )

1) Cooperation, helping each other.
2) Taking care and appreciate ICT devices.
3) Follow instructions.


20. Kemahiran Berfikir
( Thinking Skills )

Observing, identifying, making inference, comparing and differentiating.







References
1. The ICT impact in education page 1 http://insight.eun.org/ww/en/pub/insight/misc/specialreports/impact_study.htm
2. UNESCO ICT report – phillipines ICT in Education page 1- 2 http://www2.unescobkk.org/education/ict/v2_2/info.asp?id=13244
3 http://ijedict.dec.uwi.edu/viewarticle.php?id=447&layout=html Malaysian Smart Schools: A Fruitful Case Study for Analysis to Synopsize Lessons Applicable to the Egyptian Context
4. http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/cs/singapore/singapore.html ICT -Singapore Case Study
5. http://gauge.u-gakugei.ac.jp/apeid/apeid02/papers/Indonesia.htm ICT for Education in Indonesia
6. http://www.skpj1.com/Word/Pengurusan%20Pembelajaran%20Bestari.pdf. Pengurusan Pembelajaran Bestari, oleh Sobariyah Bte Razak page 1 -8
7. The role of ICT in the economic development of Africa International Journal of Education- using ICT IJECDICT, 2005, Vol 2, issue 4 page 144-156
8. http://www.tutor.com.my/tutor/archives/CADfPP/HSP/PMR/MAT/PMR_MAT Rancangan Mengajar Matematik Tingkatan 3